The best-studied genes associated with athletic performance are ACTN3 and ACE. These genes influence the fiber type that makes up muscles, and they have been linked to strength and endurance. The ACTN3 gene provides instructions for making a protein called alpha (α)-actinin-3, which is predominantly found in fast-twitch muscle fibers. A variant in this gene, called R577X, leads to production of an abnormally short α-actinin-3 protein that is quickly broken down. Some people have this variant in both copies of the gene; this genetic pattern (genotype) is referred to as 577XX. These individuals have a complete absence of α-actinin-3, which appears to reduce the proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers and increase the proportion of slow-twitch fibers in the body. Some studies have found that the 577XX genotype is more common among high-performing endurance athletes (for example, cyclists and long-distance runners) than in the general population, while other studies have not supported these findings. The 577RR genotype is associated with a high proportion of fast-twitch fibers and is seen more commonly in athletes who rely on strength or speed, such as short-distance runners.
The ACE gene provides instructions for making a protein called angiotensin-converting enzyme, which converts a hormone called angiotensin I to another form called angiotensin II. Angiotensin II helps control blood pressure and may also influence skeletal muscle function, although this role is not completely understood. A variation in the ACE gene, called the ACE I/D polymorphism, alters activity of the gene. Individuals can have two copies of a version called the D allele, which is known as the DD pattern, two copies of a version called the I allele, known as the II pattern, or one copy of each version, called the ID pattern. Of the three patterns, DD is associated with the highest levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme. The DD pattern is thought to be related to a higher proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers and greater speed.
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Enzyme content following 7 weeks of high intensity and reduced volume training in trained cyclists (n = 8). The average content (thick lines) of CS (A), COX-4 (B), and PFK (C) before (PRE) and after (POST) the intervention are shown in slow-twitch (ST) and fast-twitch (FT) fibers together with individual values (average of five fibers SEM at each time point) which have been normalized to ST PRE for all enzymes. Average and individual protein content measured in homogenates (HOM) are also shown for CS (D), COX-4 (E), and PFK (F) as well as maximal activity for CS (G) and PFK (H). For clarity the graphs A-F display ratio data but the statistical analysis was based on log data. #P
Representative western blots of the proteins investigated in slow-twitch (ST), fast-twitch (FT), and muscle homogenate (HOM) before (PRE) and after (POST) 7 weeks of high intensity and reduced volume training in trained cyclists. See methods section for details.
Fast-twitch (type II) fibers develop tension two to three times faster than slow-twitch (type I) fibers. How fast a fiber can contract is related to how long it takes for completion of the cross-bridge cycle. This variability is due to different varieties of myosin molecules and how quickly they can hydrolyze ATP. Recall that it is the myosin head that splits ATP. Fast-twitch fibers have a more rapid ATPase (splitting of ATP into ADP + Pi) ability. Fast-twitch fibers also pump Ca2+ ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum very quickly, so these cells have much faster twitches than the slower variety. Thus, fast-twitch fibers can complete multiple contractions much more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers. For a complete list of how muscle fibers differ in their ability to resist fatigue see the table below:
In human skeletal muscles, the ratio of the various fiber types differs from muscle to muscle. For example the gastrocnemius muscle of the calf contains about half slow and half fast type fibers, while the deeper calf muscle, the soleus, is predominantly slow twitch. On the other hand the eye muscles are predominantly fast twitch. As a result, the gastrocnemius muscle is used in sprinting while the soleus muscle is important for standing. In addition, women seem to have a higher ratio of slow twitch to fast twitch compared to men. The "preferred" fiber type for sprinting athletes is the fast-twitch glycolytic, which is very fast, however, most humans have a very low percentage of these fibers,
Inf1 instances with multiple Inferentia chips, such as Inf1.6xlarge or Inf1.24xlarge, support a fast chip-to-chip interconnect. Using the Neuron Processing Pipeline capability, you can split your model and load it to local cache memory across multiple chips. The Neuron compiler uses ahead-of-time (AOT) compilation technique to analyze the input model and compile it to fit across the on-chip memory of single or multiple Inferentia chips. Doing so enables the Neuron Cores to have high-speed access to models and not require access to off-chip memory, keeping latency bounded while increasing the overall inference throughput.
C6a instances: C6a instances are powered by 3rd generation AMD EPYC processors with an all-core turbo frequency of 3.6 GHz, offer up to 15% better price performance over C5a instances for a wide variety of workloads, and support always-on memory encryption using AMD Transparent Single Key Memory Encryption (TSME). C6a instances provide new instance sizes with up to 192 vCPUs and 384 GiB of memory, double that of the largest C5a instance. C6a also gives customers up to 50 Gbps of networking speed and 40 Gbps of bandwidth to the Amazon Elastic Block Store, more than twice that of C5a instances.
C6i instances: C6i instances are powered by 3rd generation Intel Xeon Scalable processors with an all-core turbo frequency of 3.5 GHz, offer up to 15% better price performance over C5 instances for a wide variety of workloads, and always-on memory encryption using Intel Total Memory encryption (TME). C6i instances provide a new instance size (c6i.32xlarge) with 128 vCPUs and 256 GiB of memory, 33% more than the largest C5 instance. They also provide up to 9% higher memory bandwidth per vCPU compared to C5 instances. C6i also give customers up to 50 Gbps of networking speed and 40 Gbps of bandwidth to the Amazon Elastic Block Store, twice that of C5 instances. C6i are also available with local NVMe-based SSD block-level storage (C6id instances) for applications that need high-speed, low-latency local storage. Compared to previous generation C5d instances, C6id instances offer up to 138% higher TB storage per vCPU and 56% lower cost per TB.
C6i instances offer up to 15% better price performance over C5 instances, and always-on memory encryption using Intel Total Memory encryption (TME). C6i instances provide a new instance size (c6i.32xlarge) with 128 vCPUs and 256 GiB of memory, 33% more than the largest C5 instance. They also provide up to 9% higher memory bandwidth per vCPU compared to C5 instances. C6i also give customers up to 50 Gbps of networking speed and 40 Gbps of bandwidth to the Amazon Elastic Block Store, twice that of C5 instances.
X2iezn instances feature the fastest Intel Xeon Scalable processors in the cloud and are a great fit for workloads that need high single-threaded performance combined with a high memory-to-vCPU ratio and high speed networking. X2iezn instances have an all-core turbo frequency up to 4.5 GHz, feature a 32:1 ratio of memory to vCPU, and deliver up to 55% higher compute price performance compared to X1e instances. X2iezn instances are a great fit for electronic design automation (EDA) workloads like physical verification, static timing analysis, power signoff, and full chip gate-level simulation.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy are caused by mutations within the dystrophin gene1 which primarily results in sarcolemmal fragility, muscle damage and respiratory or cardiac muscle fatigue and failure2,3. Treatment strategies for DMD have been done using genetic4,5,6,7,8,9, pharmacological10,11, or cellular12,13,14,15,16 approaches aimed at restoring dystrophin-associated glycoprotein (DAG) complex, reversing sarcolemmal fragility, and abating muscular dystrophy. However many hurdles remain and DMD is still incurable. Dysregulation of pathways associated with muscle fibre plasticity and angiogenesis in DMD are not well understood. Elucidation of such pathways may reveal signalling targets that are amenable to therapeutic manipulation by synthetic drugs. Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) ameliorates DMD mitochondrial activity and promotes oxidative slow-twitch myogenesis in mdx mice17,18. The transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) regulates the neuromuscular junction gene programme, induces a fast-to-slow fibre type transition, and ameliorates DMD pathology19,20. The dystrophin protein is expressed not only in skeletal muscle cells but also in vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells (ECs)21,22. Vascular defects, including ultrastructural abnormalities of microvessels, mixed degenerating and regenerating capillaries, replication of the capillary basal lamina, and compression of capillaries and small-calibre veins by nodular proliferative connective tissue, have been described in DMD muscles23,24,25. Angiogenic factors, such as VEGF stimulate muscle regeneration in DMD26,27,28. Based on the benefits of pro-oxidative and angiogenic regulation in muscular dystrophy, we and other groups introduced the concept of dietary supplementation to ameliorate dystrophic muscle pathology29,30. Creatine, taurine, l-glutamine, and l-arginine have been shown to have limited benefits on muscle strength and dystrophic features, though these supplements remain to be formally evaluated in long-term studies31,32,33,34. 2ff7e9595c
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